Metallurgy of the RMS Titanic

NIST-IR 6118
Metallurgy of the RMS Titanic
Tim Foecke
Metallurgy Division
National Institute of Standards and Technology
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Technology Administration
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory
Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001
Abstract
Metallurgical and mechanical analyses were performed on steel and rivet samples recovered from
the wreck of the RMS Titanic. It was found that the steel possessed a ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature that was very high with respect to the service temperature, making the material brittle at
ice-water temperatures. This has been attributed to both chemical and microstructural factors. It
has also been found that the wrought iron rivets used in the construction of Titanic contained an
elevated amount of incorporated slag, and that the orientation of the slag within the rivets may hold
an explanation for how the ship accumulated damage during its encounter with the iceberg.
Keywords: Titanic, forensics, fracture, mild steels, ships, manganese sulfide, rivets, wrought
iron, historical metallurgy
Introduction
On April 12, 1912, on her maiden voyage, the liner RMS Titanic struck an iceberg in the Atlantic
and sank 400 miles southeast of Newfoundland, with a loss of over 1500 people. This loss was
particularly tragic when considered in the context of what Titanic represented. At the time of her
construction, she was the largest moving man-made object. She was designed with the latest
safety features and was thought to be man’s triumph over nature. The popular press dubbed her
“unsinkable”.
This most famous of all shipwrecks has been the subject of books, film, and forensic speculation
for over 85 years. Many questions were raised from the time of the Mersey Inquiry [1] (the
official British hearing into the sinking) to the present day about what happened that night:
• Why did Titanic sink so quickly (in less than three hours)?
• What was the nature of the damage to the hull from the impact with the
iceberg?
• In what sequence did the compartments flood?
• Did she break in half at the surface, or did she sink intact?
• Were there any design flaws that could have been avoided?
Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute found Titanic under 12,000 feet of
water in 1985. Surprisingly, Titanic was found to be broken into two pieces oriented in opposite
directions. This confirmed the scattered testimony of some passengers that she broke at the
surface, but ran contrary to every account of the disaster given by surviving officers. This new
data fueled even more speculation as to how and why Titanic sank as she did.
Recovery of Material
The first piece of hull material recovered from the wreck site of the Titanic was brought back by the
French oceanographic institute submersible Nautile in 1991, during the filming of an IMAX
production on the sinking. This material came into the possession of Maritime Museum of the
Atlantic, who asked researchers at the Defence Research Establishment – Atlantic (DREA) in
Halifax, Nova Scotia, and CANMET in Ottawa to test the steel’s mechanical properties [2].
Charpy impact tests were performed by Ken KarisAllen and Jim Matthews of DREA, and they
found that the steel fractured in a 100% brittle fashion at ice brine temperatures. An observation of
these tests and subsequent limited analysis can be found in an article published in Popular
Mechanics [3]. This caused wide-spread speculation that the brittle character of the hull steel in ice
water might have been a major factor in the sinking of the ship. It was considered conceivable that
the impact with the iceberg, though minor, would have been sufficient to shatter the brittle hull
plates in the bow, allowing the rapid flooding of the ship.
The Marine Forensics Panel (SD-7) of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
(SNAME), of which the author is a member, in cooperation with The Discovery Channel formed a
team that was charged with a scientific investigation of the causes of the sinking of the Titanic.
RMS Titanic Inc., headed by George Tulloch and salvor-in-possession of the wreck, provided
access to the wreck and facilitated the investigation during a salvage trip in August of 1996.
During this time, investigations of the biology of the “rusticles” hanging on the hull, the damage to
the bow now buried under fifty feet of mud by sub-surface sonar imaging, and the damage to the
ship on breakup were performed. Of particular importance to this report, a section of the Titanic’s
hull plating, along with several hull and bulkhead rivets, was recovered and turned over for
analysis.
The purpose of this study was twofold. First, a determination of the physical properties,
microstructure and chemistry of the steel from the hull of RMS Titanic was made. These results
were compared to prior studies of another sample of the steel, and to modern and contemporary
standards to determine if it could be considered inferior material for the application. Secondly,
since a great deal of the other forensic evidence [4] points to the likelihood of seam opening and
rivet failure in the sinking, a detailed analysis of the microstructure of the wrought iron rivets was
performed.
Sample Preparation and Experimental Procedure
Specimens of hull steel were cut from the larger pieces using a low speed diamond saw immersed
in cooling oil. Metallographic specimens were mounted in epoxy, mechanically polished, and
etched with 10% nital solution. Optical metallographs were obtained in all three orientations with
respect to the rolling direction. In addition, scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images of the
polished and etched surfaces were obtained to show the microstructure in more detail, particularly
to better determine the pearlite lamellar spacing. In addition, fracture surfaces cut from Charpy
bars tested at ice water temperatures were imaged in the SEM to determine percent ductile fracture
and to observe the effect of precipitates on fracture nucleation.
Transmission electron microscope samples were prepared from the plate material. Slices
approximately 1 mm in thickness were cut using a low speed diamond saw. These were
mechanically thinned using 600 grit SiC paper and 5 μm Al2O3 slurry on cloth. 3 mm disc
samples were mechanically punched from the thinned slices, and given a final thinning to
approximately 100 μm. These samples were then dimpled to a residual thickness of approximately
20 μm using cubic boron nitride slurry on a brass wheel. Finally, the samples were thinned to
electron transparency using a liquid nitrogen cold stage ion mill. The samples were imaged using
both a Philips 430 and JOEL 3010 transmission electron microscopes (TEM)1, operating at 300
kV. Parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy (PEELS) and energy-dispersive xray analysis
(EDS) were used in the 3010 to try to determine contaminant concentrations on grain boundaries.
In addition, imaging secondary ion mass spectroscopy (I-SIMS) was used to determine the
chemical composition of particles and the distribution of contamination elements in the matrix.
Mechanical characterization of the hull steel, in the form of room-temperature tensile tests and
Charpy tests run at various temperatures spanning the transition regime, were performed at the
University of Missouri – Rolla, under the supervision of Prof. H.P. Leighly [5]. Chemical
analyses were performed by Prof. Leighly [5] and also by Dr. Harold Reemsnyder of the Homer
Laboratories of Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania [6].
Experimental Results
Metallography
Steel samples of all three orientations orthogonal with respect to the rolling plane were polished
and etched to reveal the microstructure. A ferrite-pearlite microstructure was seen, with large
ferrite grains (ASTM number = 4-5, 100 μm to 130 μm equivalent diameter) and large, coarse
pearlite colonies (roughly 0.2 μm lamella thickness, but quite variable). The microstructure shows
a large amount of banding in the rolling direction. MnS and oxide particles are evident throughout
the material, and were quite large, occasionally exceeding 100 μm in length. The MnS particles
were deformed into lenticular shapes instead of being melted into stringers. Given the lack of rareearth
additions to increase the sulfide melting point (see table 2), this indicates a low rolling
temperature. The large grain size and coarse pearlite are consistent with air-cooling of the rolled
1 Identification of specific brand-names of experimental equipment does not imply
endorsement by either NIST or the U.S. Government.
plate, with no evidence of quenching or normalization treatments evident. All of this evidence is
consistent with the production of this plate in a low speed rolling mill, as was the norm in turn-ofthe-
century Ireland.
A comparable modern steel grade is AISI 1018, which has a similar chemistry and does not
possess a specialized microstructure. Micrographs of a modern 1018 steel show a finer grain size,
much finer pearlite, and smaller and less numerous rare-earth doped MnS particles. This
microstructure is typical of that produced in a modern high-speed mill, followed by a quench and
normalization treatment.
Figure 1: Scanning electron microscope image of the polished and etched longitudinal sections of
steel from the hull of the Titanic, and for comparison a modern hot-rolled 25 mm (1”) AISI 1018
plate. Note the differences in grain size, pearlite lamella spacing, and MnS particle sizes.
Mechanical Testing
The data produced from tensile tests performed on steel recovered in 1996 [5] and 1991 [2] is
shown in Table 1. The uncertainty in this data is unknown. These values are consistent with the
design requirements of “15-20 tonnes per inch squared” as specified by Harland and Wolff (the
shipbuilder who constructed Titanic in Belfast in 1911 [4]). Two groups of Charpy specimens
were prepared such that in one group the long direction of the specimens were parallel to the
longitudinal direction of the hull plate (LS) and in the second group the long axis of the specimen
was parallel to the transverse direction (TL). The adjoining figure compares the experimental
results from the Charpy impact test of the Titanic hull steel for the longitudinal and transverse
rolling directions with a modern ASTM A36 mild steel [7]. Unfortunately for the purposes of a
direct correlation of properties and microstructure, the comparison of mechanical behavior was
made versus A36 steel, which is chemically nearly identical to AISI 1018 used in the
microstructural comparison, but has a more specialized microstructure. Using 20 ft-pounds (27 J.)
for the determination of the ductile-brittle transition temperature, the author [5]obtains a transition
temperature of -15oC for the modern A36 steel, while the Titanic specimens yielded transition
temperatures of +40oC for specimens in the longitudinal direction and +70oC for the transverse
direction. The transition temperatures for the Titanic steel are much above the water temperature of
-2oC at the time of the ship-iceberg collision [1].
Figure 2: A plot of the impact
energy measured by the Charpy
test versus temperature for two
different orientations for the
Titanic hull steel, as well as
modern A36 (which is
c h e m i c a l l y a n d
microstructurally very similar to
AISI 1018). The transition
temperature is marked for each
series of samples, and is
defined as that temperature
where the sample exhibited 20
ft-lbs (27 J.) of energy. Data
from reference [5]. The
uncertainty in the data is
unknown.
Table 1
Tensile Tests Results
Plate recovered in: 1996 [7] 1991 [2]
Yield Stress 38 ksi (262 MPa) 41 ksi (280 MPa)
Ultimate Tensile Stress 62.5 ksi (430 MPa) 62.6 ksi (432 MPa)
% Elongation (50 mm gage length) 29% 30.9%
Fractography
Fracture surfaces cut from the Charpy test specimens tested from the 1996 plate were examined in
the scanning electron microscope. Fracture was entirely transgranular (figure 3), with no evidence
of fractured grain boundaries. This is significant, in that if the cause of limited fracture ductility of
the steel (as evidenced by the absence of microvoids) had been sulfur embrittlement, we would
expect sulfur segregation to the grain boundaries and intergranular fracture facets. At ice-brine
temperatures, the fracture was nearly entirely brittle, with the ductile portion of the fracture surface
estimated to be less than 5 percent (figure 4). Cleavage patches on the surface, made up of 4 to 15
cleaved grains, were seen to originate at fractured MnS particles, as evidenced by tracing river lines
on the facets. This indicates that in some cases the MnS particles acted as initiators, but the
incidence of these nucleated patches amounted to less than 10% of the surface area of the Charpy
bar fracture surface.
Figure 3: SEM fractograph of Charpy bar fracture surface (LT) from a sample fractured at 0o C.
Note the presence of cleavage facets and absence of fracture grain boundaries. One or two
cleavage patches nucleated by MnS particles can be identified in this image.
Figure 4: SEM fractograph of
Charpy bar fracture surface from
a sample fractured at 0o C. Note
presence of ductility along ridges.
This micrograph contains the
largest amount of plasticity
observable on the surface in one
area of the fracture surface of this
sample.
Figure 5: SEM fractograph
showing the MnS particle that
fractured and nucleated a
patch of 15 cleaved grains.
This was determined by
tracing river lines within the
patch. Note the lenticular
shape of the particle, the
cleavage river lines eminating
from the particle, and the
fractured course pearlite
colony in the upper right
corner.
Chemical Analysis
The steel from the hull was analyzed for chemical composition. Two determinations were made on
material recovered in the 1996 expedition [5,6], and one of the 1991 material [2]. These are
summarized in table 2. It is seen that the hull is made up of a steel that is roughly equivalent to a
modern AISI 1018 mild steel, with somewhat elevated levels of sulfur and low manganese. The
oxygen content implies that this is a semi-killed steel, and the low nitrogen levels indicate that the
steel was produced in an open-hearth furnace and not by a Bessemer process [8]. Imaging of the
chemical distribution within the steel using secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) and by
parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy (PEELS) in the TEM showed that the sulfur in the steel
to be almost entirely tied up in the MnS particles and not distributed in the matrix nor on the grain
boundaries.
Table 2
Chemical Composition of the Hull Steel from the RMS Titanic
Element 1991 [2] 1996 [5] 1996 [6] AISI 1018 [8]
(CANMET) (U.Mo, Rolla) (Beth. Steel) (ASM)
Carbon 0.20% 0.21 % 0.21% 0.18-0.23%
Sulfur 0.065% 0.069% 0.061% 0.05% max
Manganese 0.52% 0.47 % – 0.60-1.0%
Phosphorous 0.01% 0.045% – 0.04% max
Silicon 0.025% 0.017% -
Copper 0.026% 0.024% -
Nitrogen 0.004% 0.0035% 0.0026%
Oxygen – 0.013% -
Rare Earths – -
Mn/S Ratio 8.0:1 6.8:1 – 12:1 – 20:1
Mn/C Ratio 2.5:1 2:1 – 3:1 – 7:1
All measurements in volume percent, with unknown uncertainties.
Discussion
Analysis of the Fracture Behavior of the Hull Steel
The measured fracture toughness of the steel from the hull of Titanic is unacceptably low for use as
a structural material at ice water temperatures. This is likely not due to any one single material
characteristic, but a combination of several. These can be broken down into four general
categories: effects of chemistry, microstructure, architecture, and loading rate.
Effect of the Chemistry of the Steel
Several elemental constituents can increase or decrease toughness at various concentrations. The
sulfur level measured in the Titanic hull steel is higher than that acceptable in modern steels, as is
the phosphorus concentration. Both of these elements can decrease the measured upper shelf
toughness, but have been seen to have little effect on the transition temperature [9]. The steel was
also found to be low in Mn. This can lead to sulfur embrittlement if there is insufficient Mn to tie
up all the sulfur in MnS particles. However, SIMS and PEELS data indicate this is not the case,
but rather that the sulfur is mainly occupied in sulfide particles. Mn is also a powerful solidsolution
toughening agent, which can shift the transition temperature several tens of degrees celsius
with small additions [10]. Thus the low Mn level may have had an impact on the toughness of the
ferrite matrix. Also found to be important in low-carbon steel is the ratio of manganese-to-carbon
[11], which has a desired value of 5 for a 1018 steel [12], but which measured 1.5 to 2 in the
Titanic hull steel.
It has been argued that the sulfur content of the hull steel was significantly higher than the standard
of the time, and that should have implied to the engineers that the ship was being made of material
that would have been substandard from a fracture viewpoint, given sulfur’s deleterious effect on
fracture toughness. However, it is important that one look at the sulfur content standard from a
historical viewpoint. The sulfur content standard for structural mild steel is 0.05% maximum
today. In 1906, the standard, which would have been in place at the time of the ship’s
construction, was placed at 0.04% [13]. This would indicate that the steel from the hull was even
more sub-standard at the time. However, a further investigation of the literature reveals that the
standard had been revised to 0.055% (1933, [14]) and 0.05% (1946, [15]) at various times
between 1906 and the present day. There is no evidence that the concentration level was set in
reaction to any data linking sulfur concentrations to fracture or tensile behavior, but rather seem to
be a series of estimates at an upper bound. Metallurgists of the era had an empirical knowledge
that elevated levels of certain tramp elements, most notably sulfur and phosphorus, increased the
likelihood of cracking in steel under certain service conditions. The effect had been known in
general terms for nearly a century, but a quantitative analysis was not performed until the analysis
of Liberty Ship failures during and after WW II [16]. Any assertion that the engineers constructing
the ship should have been able to link a chemical analysis showing high sulfur in any given plate to
a obvious risk of brittle fracture is unfounded. Also, it is far too simplistic to state that, simply
because there exist somewhat elevated sulfur concentrations, the steel was brittle, as will be
discussed in subsequent sections.
Effect of the Steel Microstructure
Trends have been found relating microstructural characteristics of mild steel with ferrite/pearlite
microstructures to fracture toughness. In general, larger ferrite grain sizes and pearlite colonies
give lower toughnesses [17]. There is a body of work in the literature, for example the analysis of
Ritchie, Knott and Rice [18] that the size, shape and distribution of carbides in mild steel is a
dominant factor in determining the shape and location of the brittle-to-ductile transition temperature
(BDTT). Since the steel from the hull appears to have been air-cooled and unannealed, most of the
carbon not in matrix solid solution is tied up in carbide lamella in the pearlite. It was not possible
in either the SEM or TEM to find precipitated particle carbides in the steel. So the carbide size that
would be controlling fracture behavior would be that in the pearlite, and thus a coarser pearlite
lamella spacing would cause a higher transition temperature.
The presence and large size of the MnS particles are considered deleterious to fracture resistance,
as they act as crack initiators within the steel at temperatures near the lower shelf [19]. It was seen
that the plate recovered in 1996 exhibited 5% ductile fracture during Charpy tests at ice-brine
temperatures, and that MnS particles, upon examination of the fracture surface, nucleated a few
patches of cleavage. However, the plate recovered in 1991 was 100% brittle even at room
temperature [20], placing it firmly in, not near the lower shelf regime. Thus MnS particles would
have little to no effect on toughness in this plate. The presence of MnS particles and their effect on
crack growth have been found to be much more important at high temperatures than lower
temperatures. Their effect on the fracture behavior of both the material in this study as well as the
1991 study [2] are considered negligible. Although cleavage patches have been identified on the
fracture surface as having come from the fracture of a MnS particle, and thus the formation of a
process-zone would have begun, the occurrence of this was relatively rare. It is believed that the
fracture mechanism that controlled at -2oC would have been weakest-link [18], where the first
fractured microstructural feature would have precipitated failure. And as the population of large
carbides, in the form of thick pearlite lamella, is many times that of large sulfides, it is more likely
that a fractured carbide would precipitate failure.
A finer microstructure, both in terms of grain size and in pearlite lamella spacing, would have
exhibited a significantly higher transition temperature at this composition. This could have been
obtained by rolling the steel at a higher speed and temperature, then subjecting the plate to a quench
and normalization anneal. However, the concept of notch sensitivity of iron-based alloys was little
understood, and the first quantitative ways to begin to evaluate the fracture toughness of a material,
among them the Charpy V-notch test [21], was only devised in the five or so years before the
construction of the ship. It was suggested in a rather off-hand manner in the Mersey Inquiry [1]
that Charpy-like testing should have been performed on the steel of the hull. However, in 1911,
the only materials being routinely tested for fracture toughness were ordinance steels [22], where
failures by fracture were thought to be much more likely than in structural steel under normal use.
Therefore, it would have been not intuitive for the designers and builders of Titanic to have tested
the hull steel for notch sensitivity, and even if they had, they had no information about what makes
steel notch sensitive in the first place, and how to fix it. Specifications of the time for steels at the
time called for only a range of tensile strengths and tensile ductility, which are a poor indicator of
fracture toughness.
Effect of Fabrication Techniques and Architectural Design
Several practices common in turn-of-the-century shipbuilding may have contributed to making
brittle steel a factor in the sinking. All of these are noted here as possibilities only, and the exact
effect each may or may not have had on the sinking may never be known for certain.
• Stress Concentrations: Because of a lack of understanding of notch sensitivity in ironbased
alloys, there was no attempt to remove stress concentrations from the architecture of
the ship. These are commonly found at hatch corners, strake junctions, and the like.
These were found to be sources of brittle cracks in Liberty Ships during and after WW II
[23].
• Cracks at Rivet Holes: The rivet holes in the hull plates of the Titanic, and of all
contemporary ships, were cold-punched using a steam-driven ram [24]. Upon close
examination, these rivet holes were found to contain a small number of cracks. However,
the shipbuilders generally did not worry about them because they were so small, and they
thought that a well-driven rivet would exert a clamping stress that would negate any risk
[24]. However, the residual stresses from the punching process would have been
significant, and was such that they exerted a driving force on the cracks. Furthermore,
upon impact of the plate at low temperatures, these cracks could have grown in a brittle
manner and linked up, resulting in failure of the plate.
• Plate Variability: The two plate fragments recovered from the wreck and analyzed to date
(1991 [2] and this study) have exhibited significant differences in microstructure and
fracture properties. They appear to have been rolled at different temperatures, as evidenced
by the more severe banding and MnS particle melting in the 1991 plate. This variability
would have meant that some plates were at risk of brittle fracture at ice-brine temperatures,
while others would have been fine. This effect of plate variability in the hull was also seen
in the detailed analysis of Liberty Ship failures, where the initiation, propagation, and arrest
hull plates were found to have increasingly higher toughnesses at a given temperature [22].
This variability is not unexpected, as the Titanic and her two sister ships were twice as
large as any previously built, and iron feedstock was being assembled from all over the
United Kingdom [25]. Also, the plates were being produced in 40 ton batches, versus the
500 ton batches typical for today [25].
Effect of Loading Rate
Iron-based alloys are well-known to exhibit strain-rate sensitive fracture behavior. That is, the
faster the crack is loaded, the more brittle the fracture character. There is both direct and indirect
evidence that the steel used in the hull of the Titanic and her sister ships exhibited this behavior.
Imaging of the hull of the Titanic by Nautile showed considerable buckling resulting from the
impact with the seafloor [26]. Computer simulations of the sinking showed that this impact was
fairly gradual and that these plates deformed at low strain rates [7]. However, the impact of the
ship with the iceberg at 20+ knots would have occurred at strain rates more in line with a Charpy
impact test. At this rate, the steel would exhibit more brittle behavior. Additional evidence comes
from photographs of damage to the Titanic’s sister ship, RMS Olympic, after collision in Belfast
harbor with a Royal Navy cruiser, HMS Hawke [25] (figure 5). A close examination of the
photos show considerable bending of the plates around the hole, while reports of the physical
damage include a mention of a triangular piece of hull that fractured into the ship. This would be
consistent with a high strain rate impact causing fracture, and then progressively slower
deformation as the two ships pressed together, causing bending instead of cracking.
Figure 6: A close-up of the damage to the RMS Olympic due to collision with the HMS
Hawke in the Solient in 1911. Note the man for scale. A considerable amount of plasticity in
the hull plates is indicated by the bending and twisting seen in the picture. Note missing rivets.
Photo from [25].
Analysis of the Fracture Behavior of the Rivets
The findings of the Marine Forensics Panel report [7] detail that parting of seams, and not a
mythical 90 m (300 ft) gash in the bottom of the hull, made up the damage to Titanic. This would
imply that failure of the rivets may have had a role in the sinking. A detailed analysis of two hull
rivets was undertaken to determine if any metallurgical factors may have given the rivets a tendency
to fail.
Effect of Microstructure
The Titanic was assembled using some 3,000,000 hydraulically-driven rivets [7]. These were
drawn from wrought iron, a mass of iron and iron silicate that extruded into a layered structure.
These were driven through the hull plate and the stringer, and flattened on the inside. Rivets were
considered to be acceptably driven if when tapped with a hammer, one heard a clean ‘ring’. If the
sound was a dull ‘thud’, the rivet was drilled out and another driven in.
These rivets were made of wrought iron, which consists of a relatively pure iron matrix containing
2-3% (by volume) iron silicate slag. A micrograph of the structure can be seen in figure 7.
Quantitative metallography was performed on a cross-section of a hull rivet that had been cut and
polished. This showed that this rivet contained 9.3% +/- 0.3% slag on average, which is more
than 3 times the amount normally expected in wrought iron [27]. This slag had an almost bimodal-
type distribution of sizes, ranging from a large amount in very long stringers (>200 μm
long) to a large number of small oblate spheroid particles (1 μm to 5 μm diameter).
The mechanical behavior of wrought iron, and especially the fracture behavior, is known to be
highly anisotropic [8]. Parallel to the direction of the silicate stringers, the tensile strength is on the
order of a strong mild steel, while perpendicular to this the measured strength is considerably
decreased. More strikingly, the tensile strain to failure, which is one of two parameters generally
specified in 1911 for the quality of wrought iron [27], is an order of magnitude lower in the
transverse direction than in the longitudinal direction. This behavior can be simply understood by
considering the microstructure. It is important to note that there is virtually no interfacial strength
between the ferrite and slag components of the microstructure. The slag merely takes up space in
the ferrite, from a mechanical point of view, in the transverse orientation. Worse, at low
temperatures, the silicate slag can fracture and nucleate cracks in the iron, a similar effect to MnS
particles in mild steel in the transition temperature regime. And in the transverse orientation, the
slag sheets present a very large area that can nucleate a crack.
Upon impact, these rivets might have a tendency to pop out of their holes after losing the interior
head. This is evidenced by both the rivets in possession, which are missing interior heads, and by
the higher magnification of the damage to RMS Olympic after collision with the Hawke (figure 8).
If you look at the photograph, dozens of rivets around the hole are missing. Loss of rivets, and
the resultant parting of seams and water leakage, is believed to be the main occurrence that caused
the sinking of the Titanic [7].
The two hull rivets in possession have been sectioned and examined. Both exhibit the abovementioned
orientation distribution of slag stringers within the rivet, an increased amount of
incorporated slag, and are both missing the inner head. These metallurgical factors would have
degraded the mechanical performance of the rivet. If additional samples are obtained during an
expedition planned for August of 1998, further work will be performed to determine if this was a
major factor in the sinking of the ship. Rivets from an intact section of a lap joint will be sectioned
to see if rivets that did not fail contain elevated slag levels and transversely-oriented slag stringers.
It is important to reiterate that only two rivets have been sectioned to date, out of 3,000,000, some
minority percentage of which held the hull together.
But it is also important to observe that not all rivets need exhibit these undesirable characteristics
for the rivets to have played a role in the sinking. If a load from the iceberg impact is borne by the
rivets of a lap joint on the edge of a plate, failure of a small fraction of the rivets (for whatever
reason) would transfer this load onto the remaining intact rivets. This load transfer would occur
disproportionately onto the rivets immediately adjacent to the failed ones. This could bring the
stress level in these neighboring rivets to the failure level and propagate the failure of the joint,
even if the neighboring rivets are of standard quality. The microstructure of the rivets is the most
likely candidate for becoming a quantifiable metallurgical factor in the loss of Titanic.
Figure 7: Montage of micrographs showing the orientation of silicate slag at various locations
within a cross-section of a Titanic hull rivet. Note that in the upper pre-formed head (formed onto
a hot rod of wrought iron prior to cutting the rivet to length), the slag spreads out evenly into the
head like the branches of a tree. At the bottom, where the inner head popped off, very near the
fracture surface the stringers are oriented perpendicular to the tensile axis. This occurred
presumably when the inner head was formed.
Figure 8: Blowup of damage to
Olympic after collision with HMS
Hawke. This image has undergone a
considerable amount of digital image
processing to bring out the empty rivet
holes. On the entire image after
processing, one can identify in excess
of 50 rivets missing from the immediate
area of the impact. Image from [25].
Effect of Residual Stresses
A properly driven rivet possesses a considerable amount of residual tensile stress. This develops
as the rivet cools and shrinks, clamping the two plates together, and is only partially relieved by
plastic deformation in the rivet. This stress could have an effect on the behavior of the rivets
during an impact of the hull plate. The residual stress does not have an effect on the tensile
strength of the material. However, it does have an effect on the amount of plate deflection would
be required to fail the rivet during an impact. For a given rivet, the presence of a residual tensile
stress decreases the amount of additional stress needed to exceed the ultimate tensile strength of the
material. This represents a smaller amount of deflection of the hull plate applying the stress though
leverage against the supporting rib inside the ship. High residual stresses would increase the
tendency of rivets to “pop” during collisions. The presence of high residual stresses in Titanic
rivets can be seen in a badly-corroded bulkhead rivet, seen in figure 9. The head of the rivet has
exfoliated and the slag stringers have spread, driven by residual stress during stress corrosion
cracking and dissolution of the ferrite.
Figure 9: Bulkhead rivet from RMS Titanic. Note the
portion of the head that exfoliated during corrosion of
the ferrite matrix of the wrought iron, under the
influence of the residual stress in the rivet.
Conclusions
• The steel used to construct the RMS Titanic’s hull, though adequate in strength, possessed
a very low fracture toughness at ice water temperatures
• The low toughness was likely due to a complex combination of factors, including low Mn
content, a low Mn/C ratio, a large ferrite grain size and large and coarse pearlite colonies.
• There is evidently a large variation in properties among the 2000 plates that made up the
hull of Titanic. This conclusion is based on the very different microstructures and fracture
behavior observed in the two plate samples recovered to date. This is a normal result of the
variability of feedstock and rolling conditions in turn-of-the-century ironworks.
• This variability makes it difficult to determine the effect of MnS particles and microcracks
in the sinking of the ship. An analysis of the actual plates involved in the collision would
be required for a more firm determination.
• It is possible that brittle steel contributed to the damage at the bow due to the impact with
the iceberg, but much more likely that the brittle steel was a factor in the breakup of the ship
at the surface. This is discussed in much more detail in the full Forensics Panel report [7].
• Steps could have been taken to heat-treat the steel to improve its fracture properties, but this
knowledge was simply not available in 1911.
• The microstructure of the rivets that evolved during their being driven into place, with the
slag stringers oriented perpendicular to the tensile axis, may have been a direct contributor
to the type and distribution of damage to the hull. This aspect is under further
investigation.
• Given the knowledge base available to engineers at the time of the ship’s construction, it is
the author’s opinion that no apparent metallurgical mistakes were made in the construction
of the RMS Titanic.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the following colleagues for material, data, advice,
consultation, and comments:
Phil Leighly (Univ. of Missouri, Rolla, MO), Harold Reemsnyder (Homer Labs,
Bethlehem Steel, Bethlehem, PA), George Tulloch (RMS Titanic, Inc., New York, NY),
Bill Garzke (Gibbs and Cox and SNAME, Arlington, VA), Jim Matthews (Defence
Research Establishment – Atlantic, Halifax, Nova Scotia), Bob Brigham (CANMET,
Ottawa, Quebec), Ed McCutcheon (USCG (Retired), Bethesda, MD), Bill Gerberich
(Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN), and John Bonevich (Metallurgy Division,
NIST).
References
1. 1912 Board of Trade Hearings of the Titanic Disaster (Mersey Inquiry).
2. R.J. Brigham and Y.A. Lafreniere, “Titanic Specimens”, CANMET Report 92-32(TR),
CANMET Metals Technology Laboratories, Ottawa, Canada.
3. “Titanic Steel: A Shattering Tale”, Popular Mechanics, February 1995.
4. Moss, M. and Hume, J.R. Shipbuilders to the World, 125 years of Harland and Wolff,
Belfast, Blackstaff Press, Belfast (1986).
5. K. Felkins, H.P. Leighly, and A. Jankovic, “The Royal Mail Ship Titanic: Did a
Metallurgical Failure Cause a Night to Remember?”, JOM 50 (1) (1998) p. 12.
6. Dr. Harold Reemsnyder, in a letter report to the Marine Forensics Panel (SD-7) of the
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, August 12, 1997.
7. W.A. Garzke Jr., D.K. Brown, P.K. Matthias, R. Cullimore, D. Wood, D. Livingstone,
H.P. Leighly Jr., T. Foecke, and A. Sandiford, “Titanic, The Anatomy of a Disaster”,
Proceedings of the 1997 Annual Meeting of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers, SNAME, Jersey City, NJ (1997) p. 1-1
8. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, United States Steel Corporation, 7th. Edition,
Pittsburgh (1957).
9. A.J. DeArdo, Jr. and E.G. Hamburg in Sulfide Inclusions in Steel, American Society for
Metals, Metals Park, OH (1974) p. 309.
10. J.A. Rinebolt and W.J. Harris, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals 43 (1951) p. 1175; 44
(1952) p. 225.
11. M.L. Williams, Symp. on Metallic Materials at Low Temperatures, ASTM STP 158
(1953) p. 11.
12. M.L. Williams and G.A. Ellinger, American Welding Journal 32 (1953) p. 498.
13. “Sulfur Content Standards in Structural Steels”, American Technical Society, Chicago
(1906).
14. see W.M. Wilson, J. Mather and C.O. Harris, Bull. No. 239, Ill. Experimental Station
(1931), p. 3.
15. Steel Products Manual, Section 2: Semifinished Carbon Steel Products, American Iron and
Steel Instute, Pittsburgh (1946).
16. Brittle Fracture of Welded Ship Structures: Final Report of a Board of Investigation,
convened by order of the Secretary of the Navy, US Govt. Printing Office, Washington
DC (1946)
17. ref. 6, p. 800.
18. R.O. Ritchie, J.F. Knott, and J.R. Rice, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 21 (1973) p. 395.
19. I. Kozasu and J. Tanaka in Sulfide Inclusions in Steel, American Society for Metals,
Metals Park, OH (1974) p. 286
20. J. Matthews, Defence Research Establishment – Atlantic, private communication, October
1996.
21. M. Charpy, Ass. Intern. pour l’essai des materiaux, VI Congres, rv, 5 New York (1912).
22. C.F. Tipper, The Brittle Fracture Story, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1962).
23. M. Williams, “Failures in Welded Ships, An Investigation of the Causes of Structural
Failures”, NBS Technical News Bulletin 37 (24) (1953).
24. W.A. Garzke, Jr. , Private Communication (1997).
25. Eaton, J.P. and Haas, C.A. Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy, W.W. Norton and Co., New
York (1986).
26. Private communication, D. Livingstone to W. Garzke (1996).
27. R.M. Brick and A. Phillips Structure and Properties of Alloys, McGraw-Hill, New York
(1949) p. 33

Treasure Hunters – Allan Baillie

Treasure Hunters
Allan Baillie
Notes written by Catherine McCredie
Summary
Pat joins his father and his father’s friend in their search for a shipwreck off the coast
of an Indonesian island. This island is a territory in turmoil, with freedom fighters
actively seeking independence from Indonesia and the Indonesian military using
extreme methods to quell uprisings.
In searching for the lost Flor do Mar – a sixteenth-century Portuguese ship, ‘the
richest shipwreck in the world’, which was once loaded with treasures from Malacca
(near Indonesia) – Pat and the others start piecing together the old history that led to
the ship being wrecked. But they also become reluctantly and fatefully embroiled in
modern-day Indonesian politics.
Themes
Treasure Hunting and Shipwrecks
• Do many people search for lost shipwrecks?
• What kind of people are they?
• What attracts them? Would you do this?
• Who owns the treasure once it’s been found?
• How many valuable, undiscovered shipwrecks are there? Where are they? What
are some of the most famous shipwrecks? This may be research that can be done on
the Internet.
Social Responsibility
• What are our responsibilities towards others? Do you have more responsibility for
someone you know, or someone who asks you for help, than for a stranger?
• When you’re in a foreign country, are there some things you should just ignore, or
put up with? Are some things always worth fighting for? If so, what?
• How important is it to understand the politics of the country you are living in or
visiting? What is the relevance of politics to your day-to-day life?
Indonesian Politics
Allan Baillie’s most pioneering work as a writer has been to place his characters in
the centre of some of the world’s most troubled spots (with a particular focus on
Asia), thereby offering his readers invaluable insights. For this, he has drawn on his
background as a journalist, and his own far-reaching experience. For instance, it was
through witnessing the events leading up to and occurring in Tiananmen Square at
the time of the massacre that led Allan to write The China Coin.
What are some recent events that might have inspired Allan Baillie to write Treasure
Hunters? How plausible are the actions of ‘The General’ in Treasure Hunters?
• What were the effects of colonisation on Indonesia?
• What other trouble spots has Allan Baillie explored? Where could he choose next
to write about? (In fact, Allan is currently writing a novel set in present-day Egypt.
Can you imagine some elements he might use in the plot? Perhaps you could draw
up a plot outline for this novel.)
History of the Spice Islands
• What was Malacca like in the early 16th Century? What was the purpose of the
Flor de Mar’s fateful trip? Again, this type of research can be done on the Internet.
Writing style and language
How has Allan Baillie’s background as a journalist affected his writing? Do you know
other writers who were once journalists? Are there similarities between these writers
and Allan Baillie? Do you think this is a good background for a writer? Could there be
disadvantages? Why do you think Allan Baillie chose to write novels for young
people, instead of remaining a journalist? Are there particular journalists whose
writing you enjoy?
• Find newspaper or magazine articles that lead to discussion and debate – try
writing your own novel outline based around some of the real-life things you find in
the media.
Can you imagine being on a little boat off an Indonesian island with your slapdash
father? Can you imagine being a Portuguese sailor in the 16th Century? How has
Allan Baillie gone about building a picture in the reader’s mind?
• Use these questions as a springboard for your own personal or descriptive
writing.
• The historical story is written in the present tense, and the modern story is written
in the past tense. What do you think this achieves? Is it an effective technique?
Look at the structure of Treasure Hunters. Is it chronological? How does this effect
your reading of the book?
Activities
• Look at the cover of the book. What does it tell you about the story? What does it
suggest about the main character? What sense of the narrative is presented?
• How will Pat tell his story to Beth? To Robbie?
• Research the Flor de Mar. Are there treasure hunters looking for it now? Do you
think it will be discovered one day? What treasures was it carrying?
• Research Indonesian politics. What is causing the current instability in Indonesia?
Pick an Indonesian territory that is threatening to break away from the rest of
Indonesia. What measures does the Indonesian government take to quell uprisings?
What is the Australian government’s stance? Do you agree with the Australian
government’s position? What are some of the issues that the Australian government
considers when it forms a stance? Who helps the government to form an opinion?
Who decides, in the end?
• Research the history of East Timor. How and when did East Timor achieve
independence? Regarding East Timor, what was the Australian government’s stance
over the years? How and why did this stance change? Do you think it’s likely that
other Indonesian territories will also achieve independence? What about Australia?
Are there parts of Australia that would prefer to form an independent government?
How do you think governments should respond to demands for independence?
• Write your own treasure hunt – think about what your character will learn and
how they will change by the end of their adventure.
• Read one of Allan Baillie’s other political thrillers. What similar themes, if any, are
explored in Allan’s other books?
About the Author
Since the publication of his first book for children, Adrift, in 1983, Allan Baillie has
become one of Australia’s most important writers for children. His novels, which
include Little Brother (1986), The China Coin (1992) and Saving Abbie (2000), have
won him acclaim, awards and international recognition. He is also the author of
several highly successful picture books, including Drac and the Gremlin (1989).
Allan Baillie’s novels have found success in Japan, Sweden, Holland, Germany,
France, Spain, England, the United States, New Zealand and South Africa.
Allan is a versatile author who has written fantasy novels and novellas (The
Magician, Megan’s Star, Foggy), a mystery (Secrets of Walden Rising) and a
historical novel set in pre-colonial Australia (Songman). He has also written
collections of short stories.

Famous Shipwrecks in Labuan

Famous Shipwrecks in Labuan
Treasure Images underwater filming services have been required by the Malaysian
Department of Museums and Antiquities to document the condition of the 4 famous Labuan
Shipwrecks.
Known as the Australian Wreck, the American Wreck, the Blue Water Wreck and the
Cement Wreck, Labuan wrecks have not yet been protected by any laws against looters,
fishermen as well as commercial fishing trawlers.
How much damage been done and in what conditions the wrecks are has been one of the
subjective of the Museum to be researched and filmed.
During one week of filming work, Treasure Images Cameramen brought up fantastic, but
also alarming images. Although there is healthy coral grow and plenty of marine life on the
Cement Wreck, fish traps, countless fishing nets and clear signs of dynamite fishing can be
found at the Blue Water Wreck. The thin steel plates of the American Wreck are fast
deteriorating and looters have been taking almost anything of value. Countless fishing
trawlers in the region stir up silt and cover the Australian Wreck and whatever looters
haven’t taken from it yet.
We also found personal artifacts of crewmembers and passengers, as well as grenades
and ammunition on the two World War II Wrecks (The American and The Australian
Wreck), which have been given to the Museum for conservation and display.
The wrecks are part of Labuan’s and Borneo’s history and need urgent protection should
they be kept intact as war memorials and tourist attractions.
More information’s on the wrecks at www.labuantourism.com.my/explore/wreck_diving.htm
Blue Water Wreck
Cement Wreck
Australian Wreck
American Wreck
Copyright by Treasure Images Sdn Bhd
www.treasure-images.com

List of Famous Shipwrecks

Library and Information Services Division
Current References 2003-3 (Revised)
List of Publications on Shipwrecks and Shipwreck Related Topics in NOAALINC*
Prepared by
Anna Fiolek
NOAA Central Library
1315 East-West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
U. S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service
National Oceanographic Data Center
NOAA Central Library
July 31, 2003, Rev. August 25, 2004
1
2
Preface
This bibliography has been prepared on the occasion of the Brown Bag Seminar AThe Wreck of the Henrietta Marie@ presented by Michael Cottman of the Washington Post in the NOAA Central Library on July 31, 2003. The bibliography contains printed publications and online Internet resources on shipwrecks. The entries are arranged alphabetically by title.
Anna Fiolek, M.A, M.L.S.
Metadata Librarian
NOAA Central Library
Silver Spring, MD
July 31, 2003
Revised, August 25, 2004
* NOAALINC – NOAA Library Network Online Catalog.
3
List of selected publications on shipwrecks and shipwreck related topics in NOAALINC
Krieger, Michael J. 2002. All the men in the sea : the untold story of one of the greatest rescues in history. VK1329.C35 K75 2002
Holecek, Donald F. Attitudes of a scuba diving population concerning government regulation of underwater resources.
GC57.2 .M5518 no.80-201
Halsey, John R. 1990. Beneath the inland seas : Michigan’s underwater archaeological heritage. Lansing, MI : Michigan Dept. of State, Bureau of History.
CC77.U5 H3 1990
Berlitz, Charles. The Bermuda Triangle.
G525 .B49
By fire, storm, and ice : underwater archeological investigations in the Apostle Islands.
F587.A8 B9 1991
Marshall, Don B. California shipwrecks : footsteps in the sea.
F863 .M37
California wreck register. 1861-1876
RAREBOOK VK1250 C3 1861-1876
CNN-science & technology : the Monitor. 1993. [videorecording]
QH91.75 .M661 1993
The Cold water survival handbook. 1989.
VK1259 .C65 2nd ed. (1989)
United States. Congress. House. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere. 1995. The Cuban March 13th tugboat incident : hearing before the Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress, first session, January 25, 1995.
GOVDOC Y 4.IN 8/16:C 89/8
Bascom, Willard. Deep water, ancient ships : the treasure vault of the Mediterranean.
DE61.N3 B37
4
Goldstein, Richard. 2001. Desperate hours: the epic rescue of the Andrea Doria.
Electronic book accessible via World Wide Web at the NOAA Central Library:
http://www.netLibrary.com/urlapi.asp?action=summary&v=1&bookid=66450
EBOOK G530 .A244 G66 2001 eb
Heden, Karl E. (Karl Erik). 1966. Directory of shipwrecks of the Great Lakes.
VK1271 .H43 1966
Gibbs, Jim. 1971. Disaster log of ships.
VK1272 .P33 G52
Ballard, Robert D., Archbold, Rick. 1955. The discovery of the Titanic. Illustrations of the Titanic by Ken Marschall. G530.T6 B49 1995
United States. Air Force. Combat Crew Training Wing, 3636th. Environmental Information Division. Edible and hazardous marine life. By Sharee J. Pepper.
PUSMAFB Edible
Drury, Horace Featherstone, Smith, Stanley G. Emergency food value of Alaskan wild plants.
QK98.5 .D83
Hoff, Rebecca. Empire Knight : assessing environmental risk. Prepared for the United States Coast Guard Distric I. GC57 .N6 no.81
Berman, Bruce D. Encyclopedia of American shipwrecks. VK1270 .B46
Delgado, James P., editor. Encyclopedia of underwater and maritime archaeology.
CC77.U5 E53 1998
Ballard, Robert D.,Archbold, Rick. 1991. Exploring the Bismarck. D772.B5 B3 1991
Rieseberg, Harry E. (Harry Earl). 1965. Fell’s guide to sunken treasure ships of the world :
a handbook of world treasure ships, including submerged cities, for modern-day salvors and treasure-hunters. G525 .R545 1965
Procter, George H. The fishermen’s memorial and record book : containing a list of vessels and their crews lost from the port of Gloucester from the year 1830 to October 1, 1873.
C/L P964
Kite-Powell, Hauke L. 1996. Formulation of a model for ship transit risk : year 1 progress report.
GC57.2 .M3 no.96-19
5
Snow, Edward Rowe. 1964. The fury of the seas.
G525 .S577 1964
The graveyard of the Atlantic [videorecording] 1997. Production of Video Marketing Group, Inc. ; [The Graveyard of the Atlantic Museum].
VK1273.N6 G7 1997
Stick, David. Graveyard of the Atlantic : shipwrecks of the North Carolina coast / by David Stick with illustrations by Frank Stick. Also available online: E-BOOK (http://www.netLibrary.com/urlapi.asp?action=summary&v=1&bookid=48021)
VK1273 .N6 S7 1952
Hoehling, A. A. (Adolph A.). Great ship disasters.
VK1250 .H63
Snow, Edward Rowe. Great storms and famous shipwrecks of the New England coast.
527.51 S67
Lonsdale, Adrian L., Kaplan, H. R. 1964. A guide to sunken ships in American waters.
VK1270 .L6 1964
Winslow, Ron. 1978. Hard aground : the story of the Argo Merchant oil spill.
GC1212.M4 W56 1978
Historic Shipwreck Management: Meeting of Experts (1992 : Woods Hole, Mass.). Historic shipwreck management : meeting of experts : final report / Porter Hoagland, [ed.] 1993.
VK1270 .H5 1993
Historic shipwrecks and magnetic anomalies of the northern Gulf of Mexico : reevaluation of archaeological resource management zone 1 / Ervan G. Garrison … [et al.].
F296 .H67 v.2, F296 .H67 v.3
Historic shipwrecks of the Gulf of Mexico : a teacher’s resource.
Also available online: http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS12395
GOVDOC I 72.2:SH 6
V-Five Association of America. How to survive on land & sea. / prepared by Frank C. Craighead and John J. Craighead ; ill.by Elizabeth Bunker.
613.69 U58-ONO AID
Investigation of condition of wrecked ship SS Crown Reefer. 1949.
RAREBOOK VK1255.C7 I5 1949
Watts, Gordon P. 1982? Investigating the remains of the U.S.S. Monitor : a final report on 1979 site testing in the Monitor National Marine Sanctuary. Series: Technical report
6
(Harbor Branch Foundation), no. 42.
E595.M7 W3 1982
Keepers of the reef ; and, ocean portraits [videorecording] 1999. Production of Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute and New England Aquarium.
QE565 .K4 1999
Dillon, Patrick. 1998. Lost at sea : an American tragedy.
G530.A2297 D55 1998
Hall, J. W. 1872. Marine disasters on the western lakes, during the navigation of 1871 : with the loss of life and property, vessels bought and sold, new vessels and their tonnage : also, those which have passed out of existence : with a sketch of early marine history, and vessels laid up at various lake ports.
VK1271 .M37 1872
Muckelroy, Keith. 1978. Maritime archaeology.
CC77.U5 M83 1978
Coleman, Charles. 1992. Mayday! Mayday! Mayday! : this is the Haleakala.
G530.H18 C65 1992
San Francisco Chamber of Commerce. 1870. Memorial of the Chamber of Commerce of San Francisco, to Professor Benjamin Peirce, Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey.
RAREBOOK HF296 .S3 1870
Vrana, Kenneth J. 1989. Michigan bottomland preserves inventory.
GC57.2 M5518 no.89-500
Holecek, Donald F., Hulse, Charles A. 1980. Michigan’s coastal waters : a pilot study in underwater cultural resources.
GC57.2 .M5518 no.80-204
Monitor marine sanctuary : a photogrammetric survey : operations manual. Sponsored by Office of Coastal Zone Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in cooperation with Harbor Branch Foundation, Incorporated.
QH91.75 .M66 1977
Montana divers. Digital video collection. 2002. Created by Jeff Gray, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary and Underwater Preserve.
Electronic access: Digital video clip (col.; 35 MB;320×240; 10 sec.) http://www.lib.noaa.gov/video/oedv/montana%5Fdivers.mpg
7
Press release on the Expedition: http://www.mysticaquarium.org/ballard/ifepr/pr.asp
G530.M6 M6 2002
Municipal gazette (New York, N.Y.)
RAREBOOK QC851 .M9 v.1, no.41 (1846)-no.48 (1847)
Arnold, J. Barto, Weddle, Robert. 1978. The nautical archeology of Padre Island : the Spanish shipwrecks of 1554.
F392.P14 A74
NOAA dive site [computer file] http://www.dive.noaa.gov
Link also to NOAA Undersea Research Program home page: http://www.nurp.noaa.gov/
Link to The NOAA Diving Program (NDP) home page: http://www.ndc.noaa.gov/
GV838.672 N63 1999
Delgado, James P. 1987? Nominating historic vessels and shipwrecks to the National Register of Historic Places. [Washington, D.C.] :U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, Interagency Resources Division.
Electronic access: http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb20/
VK1250 .D4 1987
Newton, John Garland, Newton, J. G., and Blanton J. O. 1971. An oceanographic atlas of the Carolina continental margin.
OVERSIZE G1301.C7 N4 1971
United States. Congress. House. Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. Subcommittee on Oceanography. 1981- Oceanography miscellaneous : hearings before the Subcommittee on Oceanography of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, Ninety-seventh Congress, first session. Includes AAbandoned historic shipwrecks–H.R. 132.@
GOVDOC Y 4.M 53:97-1, Y 4.M 53:97-43
United States. Congress. House. Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. Subcommittee on Oceanography. Oceanography miscellaneous : hearings before the Subcommittee on Oceanography of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, first session. Includes AHistoric shipwrecks–H.R. 3194.@
GOVDOC Y 4.M 53:98-8
Butler, Bill. 1991.Our last chance : sixty-six deadly days adrift.
G530 .S574 E88 1991
Gibbs, Jim. 1950. Pacific graveyard : a narrative of the ships lost where the Columbia River meets the Pacific Ocean.
8
527.61 G44 1950
Gibbs, Jim. 4th ed (1993). Pacific graveyard : a narrative of shipwrecks where the Columbia River meets the Pacific Ocean.
G525 .G47 1993
The perfect storm [videorecording]. Warner Bros. Pictures presents a Baltimore Spring Creek Pictures production in association with Radiant Productions ; a Wolfgang Petersen film.
QC945 .P42 2000
Possible sources of wreck information. Prepared by Distribution Branch, Physical Science Services Section.
VK1259 .P6 1983 Repr. 1985
Villiers, Alan John. 1956. Posted missing; the story of ships lost without trace in recent years.
G525 .V48 1956
A preliminary bibliography of maritime archaeological and historical publications held in the Library of Michigan and the Office of State Archaeologist, Michigan Historical Center. Lansing, Mich. : Michigan Historical Center, Office of the State Archaeologist, 2003.
Z5133.U53 P7 2003
Watts, Gordon P., Cook, Roger W., Morris, Kenneth. 1979. Preliminary report : archeological and engineering expedition, Monitor National Marine Sanctuary, August 1-26 1979.
E595.M7 W379 1979
Langdon, Steve J., editor. 1983. Alaskan Marine Archeology Workshop (1983 : Sitka, Alaska) Proceedings of the Alaskan Marine Archeology Workshop, May 17-19, 1983, Sitka, Alaska.
GC57.2 .A33 no.83-9, Sea Grant A-68
Proposed Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary : draft environment impact statement/draft management plan. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
CC77.U5 N38 1997 v.1-2
Record of proceedings of a board of inquiry convened at the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey office, Washington, D.C., by order of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, to inquire into the loss of the late U.S.C. and G.S. steamer Isis, January 15, 1920.
RAREBOOK VK1255.I85 R43 1920
United States. Life-Saving Service. Regulations for the government of the Life-Saving
9
Service of the United States.
RAREBOOK VK1323 .U52 1873
Link, Marion Clayton. 1964. Sea diver; a quest for history under the sea.
F2161 .L54
Edwards, Hugh. 1975. Sharks and shipwrecks.
MIAMIREG Library
Rattray, Jeanette (Edwards). Repr. 1966. Ship ashore! A record of maritime disasters off Montauk and eastern Long Island, 1640-1955.
527.61 R23
Kinder, Gary. 1999. Ship of gold in the deep blue sea.
G530.C4 K56 1999
Bass, George F., editor. 1988. Ships and shipwrecks of the Americas : a history based on underwater archaeology. With 376 illustrations, 80 in color.
VK1250 .S557 1988
Holecek, Donald F., Lothrop, Susan J. 1980. Shipwreck vs. nonshipwreck scuba divers : characteristics, behavior, and expenditure patterns.
GC57.2 .M5518 no. 80-205
Tornfelt, Evert E., Burwell, Michael. 1992. Shipwrecks of the Alaskan shelf and shore.
SG525 .T56 1992, VK1273.A1T6 1992
Gibbs, Jim. 1957. Shipwrecks of the Pacific coast.
G525 .G5 1957, G525 .G47 1957
Marx, Robert F. 1975. Shipwrecks of the Western Hemisphere, 1492-1825.
VK1250 .M36 1975
Shomette, Donald. 1st ed. 1982. Shipwrecks on the Chesapeake : maritime disasters on Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, 1608-1978.
G525 .S5525
Horner, Dave. 1965. Shipwrecks, skin divers, and sunken gold. Illustrated by Jack Woodson. Photos from the author’s collection.
G525 .H82
Burgess, Robert Forrest. 1970. Sinkings, salvages, and shipwrecks.
G525 .B868 1970
10
Newell, Gordon R. 1955. SOS North Pacific : tales of shipwrecks off the Washington, British Columbia and Alaska coasts.
527.61 N54
Labadie, C. Patrick, Herdendorf, Charles E. 1998. The steamer Adventure and the Kelleys Island, Ohio limestone industry.
HD9621 .L3 1998
Pardey, Lin. 2000. Storm tactics handbook : modern methods of heaving-to for survival in extreme conditions.
VK200 .P37 2000
Franklin, Marianne, Morris, John William III, Smith, Roger C. 1992. Submerged historical resources of Pensacola Bay, Florida : the Pensacola Shipwreck Survey, phase one, 1991.
CC77.S36 F7 1992
Adams, Robert M. 1981. Survey of the steamboat Black Cloud. Department students, Anthropology-Nautical Archeology, Texas A & M University. Principal investigator, George F. Bass.
GC57.2 .T4 no.81-201
Surveys of abandoned vessels : Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. 2003. Prepared by Christine Lord … [et al.]. Silver Spring, Md. : U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration.
VK1294.G85 S8 2003
Surveys of abandoned vessels : U.S. Caribbean Region. 2002. Silver Spring, Md. : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration. Issued also on CD-ROM.
VK1272.C27 S8 2002, v.1
VK1272.C27 S8 2002, v.2
VK1272.C27 S8 2002 (CD-ROM)
Robertson, Dougal. 1973. Survive the savage sea.
G530 .R58
Technologies for underwater archaeology & maritime preservation.
E 159.5 .T43 1987
Hoehling, A. A. (Adolph A.). 1959. They sailed into oblivion.
G525 .H6 1959
Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary : final environmental impact
11
statement/management plan, May 1999. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Also available online: http://sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/oms/pdfs/ThunderBayEIS.pdf
CC77.U5 T58 1999
United States. Congress. House. Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. Titanic Maritime Memorial Act : hearing before the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, first session, on H.R. 3272 … October 29, 1985.
GOVDOC Y 4.M 53:99-21
Titanic : salvage law. [videorecording]
VK1491 .T5 1998
Fish, John Perry. 1989. Unfinished voyages : a chronology of shipwrecks in the Northeastern United States.
G525 .F57 1989
The University of Rhode Island’s Underwater Bicentennial Expedition. 1974.
RAREBOOK G525 .U55 1974
Buttler, Daniel Allen. 2002 (1st Da Capo Press ed.)”Unsinkable” : the full story of RMS Titanic. Cambridge, Mass. : Da Capo Press.
G530.T6 B87 1998 Repr. 2002
User’s guide : automated wreck and obstruction information system (AWOIS). National Ocean Survey.
Electronic access: http://chartmaker.ncd.noaa.gov/hsd/awois/awoisguide.pdf
VK1270 .U84 1982 July
VK1270 .U84 1984 Jan.
VK1270 .U84 1984 Mar.
VK1270 .U84 1986 July
VK1270 .U84 1988 Nov.
VK1270 .U84 1990 Oct.
VK1270 .U84 1994 Oct.
VK1270 .U84 1997 Jan.
VK1270 .U84 1999 Nov.
VK1270 .U84 2002 Feb.
Brown, Richard G. B. 1983. Voyage of the iceberg : the story of the iceberg that sank the Titanic.
G530.T6 B76
Dzugan, Jerry, Jensen, Susan Clark. 1999. Water wise : safety for the recreational boater.
C57.2 .A3 no.51
12
Wavebreaking news. Spring 2003. Digital video (3 min., 55 sec.). Silver Spring, MD : U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, 2003.
Electronic access: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/wbnews/welcome%5F03spring.html
GC1018 .W39 2003 (Online)
Wrakkenregister van het nederlandse deel van het continentale plat en de westerschelde.
VK1282.N4 W7 1988
Regan, Dennis C., Worthington, Virginia. 1978. Wreck diving in North Carolina : a directory of shipwrecks along the North Carolina coast.
GC57.2 .N6 no.78-13, sg/nc/unc-78:13.78-13
Webber, Bert. 1984. Wrecked Japanese junks adrift in the North Pacific Ocean = [Kita Taiheiy*o ni hy*ory*ushita Nihon no nanpasen]
G525 .W33 1984
Selected Internet resources:
Abandoned Shipwrecks Act. 1987. United States Code. Title 43, Public Lands, chapter 39, Abandoned Shipwrecks
http://www2.cr.nps.gov/laws/ship.htm
Abandoned Shipwrecks Act guidelines.
http://www.cr.nps.gov/aad/submerged/intro.htm
The Association of Underwater Explorers : Shipwreck information. Updated, March 2004.
http://www.mikey.net/aue/wreckinfo.html
Blue water navies : naval warship shipwreck photo index. 2002. Navalships Information Group. Updated 2003.
http://www.navalships.org/index2.html
http://www.navalships.org/shipwrecks.html
California shipwrecks. 2000. California State Lands Commission. Updated, 2003.
http://shipwrecks.slc.ca.gov/
Includes: Online Database of California Shipwrecks
Current Shipwreck Stories on the Heritage Council Web Site. Melbourne, Australia : Heritage Victoria.
Updated, 2004.
http://www.heritage.vic.gov.au/Shipwreck-Index.html
13
Shipwreck links: http://www.heritage.vic.gov.au/Shipwrecks-links.html
Famous shipwrecks & other major disasters : a Coast Guard bibbliography. 1998. U.S. Coast Guard.
Updated, February 2001.
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g%2Dcp/history/webshipwrecks/shipwreckbib.html
Florida State University, Program in Underwater Archeology : shipwreck databases, indices, and lists. 2003.
http://www.anthro.fsu.edu/uw/links/directory_files/shipwreck_data.html
History of shipwrecks and rescues. 1999. Ocean City Life-Saving Station Museum.
http://www.ocmuseum.org/shipwrecks/
Price, Scott. 1999. Index to U.S. marchant ship losses during the Second World War (by month), December 7, 1941 – August 14, 1945 (1,000 Gross Tons or Over). U.S. Coast Guard Historian’s Office. Updated, April 2002.
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-cp/history/WEBSHIPWRECKS/ShipwreckWWIIIndex.html
Massachusetts Board of Underwater Archaeological Resources. Shipwreck sites open to divers.
Boston, MA : Massechusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management. Updated, May 2004.
http://www.mass.gov/czm/BUAR.HTM
Minnesota=s historic shipwrecks. 1996. Minnesota Historical Society.
http://www.mnhs.org/places/nationalregister/shipwrecks/
New England shipwreck diving. 2000. MetroWest Dive Club. Updated, October 2003.
http://www.mwdc.org/Shipwrecks/Shipwrecks.html
Åkesson, Per. Nordic underwater archeology. 1996. Stockholm, Sweden. Updated, August 2004.
http://www.abc.se/~m10354/uwa/
Nordic and Baltic wrecks & shipfinds: http://www.abc.se/~m10354/uwa/wrecks.htm
Northern shipwreck database. Bedford, NS, Canada : Northern Maritime Research, Inc. Updated 2004.
http://www.northernmaritimeresearch.com/
Shipwreck sites: http://www.northernmaritimeresearch.com/links.html
14
Researching shipwrecks. 1999. U.S. Coast Guard
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g%2Dcp/history/webshipwrecks/shipwreckguide.html
Knight, J. D. 1997. Sea and Sky’s sea links: shipwrecks & treasures.
http://www.seasky.org/links/sealink10.html
Price, Scott. 1998. Search and rescue bibliography. U.S. Coast Guard Historian’s Office.
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g%2Dcp/history/sarbib.html
Short, Scott. 1995. Shipwreck Internet resources.
http://main.blclinks.net/~sshort/shipwrecked/swlinks.htm
Shipwreck database : bringing our historic past through shipwrecks. 2003? Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary
http://www.cinms.nos.noaa.gov/shipwreck/dbase.html
Underwater archeology : wreck finds. 2000? Gdansk, Poland : Polish Maritime Museum. http://www2.rgzm.de/navis/Musea/Gdansk/PMM07.htm
U.S. Coast Guard Historian=s Office official Web site. 2002. U.S. Coast Guard Historian’s Office.
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-cp/history/collect.html
Price, Scott. 1998. U.S. Life-Saving Service : a bibliography. U.S. Coast Guard Historian’s Office. Updated, October 2002.
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g%2Dcp/history/uslssbib.html
Wellwood Coral Reef Restoration Project. Silver Spring, MD : NOAA, National Marine Sanctuaries Program, [2002]- Updated: Nov. 13, 2003.
http://sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/special/wellwood/
Wisconsin=s Great Lakes shipwrecks. Joint project of Wisconsin Historical Society and University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute.1999.
http://www.seagrant.wisc.edu/Shipwrecks/index.html
Worldwide Shipwreck Database. International registry of sunken ships : shipwreck records. 1995-present.
http://users.accesscomm.ca/shipwreck/
Prepared by:
Anna Fiolek, M.A., M.L.S.
Metadata Librarian
NOAA Central Library
15
1315 East-West Highway
SSMC-3, 2nd Floor
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e-mail: Anna.Fiolek@noaa.gov
Library home page http://www.lib.noaa.gov